Creating a zero amylose barley with high soluble sugar content by genome editing.

Amylose biosynthesis is strictly associated with granule-bound starch synthase I (GBSSI) encoded by the Waxy gene. Mutagenesis of single bases in the Waxy gene, which induced by CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing, caused absence of intact GBSSI protein in grain of the edited line. The amylose and amylopectin contents of waxy mutants were zero and 31.73%, while those in the wild type were 33.50% and 39.00%, respectively. The absence of GBSSI protein led to increase in soluble sugar content to 37.30% compared with only 10.0% in the wild type. Sucrose and ß-glucan, were 39.16% and 35.40% higher in waxy mutants than in the wild type, respectively. Transcriptome analysis identified differences between the wild type and waxy mutants that could partly explain the reduction in amylose and amylopectin contents and the increase in soluble sugar, sucrose and ß-glucan contents. This waxy flour, which showed lower final viscosity and setback, and higher breakdown, could provide more option for food processing.

Maitake Beta-Glucan Enhances the Therapeutic Effect of Trastuzumab via Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity and Complement-Dependent Cytotoxicity.

Trastuzumab, an anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody, is the mainstay treatment for of HER2-positive breast cancer. However, trastuzumab resistance is often observed during treatment. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies are needed to enhance the clinical benefits of trastuzumab. Maitake ß-glucan MD-Fraction, isolated from Grifola frondosa, inhibits tumor growth by enhancing immune responses. In this study, we examined the effect of MD-Fraction on trastuzumab treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer. MD-Fraction did not directly inhibit the survival of HER2-positive breast cancer cells, alone or in the presence of trastuzumab in vitro. In HER2-positive xenograft models, the combination of MD-Fraction and trastuzumab was more effective than trastuzumab alone. Peripheral blood lymphocytes and splenic natural killer cells isolated from BALB/c nu/nu mice treated with MD-Fraction showed enhanced trastuzumab-induced antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) ex vivo. MD-Fraction-treated macrophages and neutrophils did not show enhanced trastuzumab cytotoxicity in the presence of heat-inactivated serum, but they showed enhanced cytotoxicity in the presence of native serum. These results suggest that MD-Fraction-treated macrophages and neutrophils enhance trastuzumab-induced complement-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (CDCC). Treatment of HER2-positive breast cancer cells with MD-Fraction in the presence of trastuzumab and native serum increased C3a release and tumor cell lysis in a dose-dependent manner, indicating that MD-Fraction enhanced trastuzumab-induced complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) by activating the complement system. This study demonstrates that the combination of trastuzumab and MD-Fraction exerts a greater antitumor effect than trastuzumab alone by enhancing ADCC, CDCC, and CDC in HER2-positive breast cancer.

Structural variety of glucans from Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies.

Ganoderma lucidum, widely used in traditional medicine, has several biological properties. Polysaccharides, mainly glucans, are known as one of its main bioactive compounds. Consequently, the achievement and chemical investigation of such molecules are of pharmaceutical interest. Herein, we obtained water-insoluble and water-soluble polysaccharides from G. lucidum by alkaline extraction. Fractionation process yielded three fractions (GLC-1, GLC-2, and GLC-3). All samples showed to be composed mainly of glucans. GLC-1 is a linear (1 â†’ 3)-linked ß-glucan; GLC-2 is a mixture of three different linear polysaccharides: (1 â†’ 3)-ß-glucan, (1 â†’ 3)-α-glucan, and (1 â†’ 4)-α-mannan; while GLC-3 is a branched ß-glucan with a (1 â†’ 4)-linked main chain, which is branched at O-3 or O-6 by (1 â†’ 3)- or (1 â†’ 6)-linked side chains. This research reports the variability of glucans in Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies and applicable methodologies to obtain such molecules. These polysaccharides can be further applied in biological studies aiming to investigate how their chemical differences may affect their biological properties.

M1 macrophages polarized by crude polysaccharides isolated from Auricularia polytricha exhibit anti-tumor effect on human breast cancer cells.

Breast cancer has been reported to correlate with the infiltration of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) or M2-like macrophages in tumor microenvironment (TME) that could promote breast cancer progression. In contrast, M1-like macrophages displayed anti-tumor activity toward cancer. This study was focused on Auricularia polytricha (AP), a cloud ear mushroom, which has been reported for anti-tumor activity and immunomodulation. AP extracts were screened on differentiated THP-1 macrophages (M0). Results demonstrated that water extract (APW) and crude polysaccharides (APW-CP) could upregulate M1-related genes and cytokines production (IL-6, IL-1 ß and TNF-α) significantly. Moreover, APW and APW-CP showed a high expression of CD86 (M1 marker) compared to M0. The NF-κB signaling pathway is crucial for pro-inflammatory gene regulation. The APW and APW-CP treatment showed the induction of the NF-κB pathway in a dose-dependent manner, which related to the ß-glucan content in the extracts. Furthermore, APW-CP polarized macrophages were investigated for anti-tumor activity on human breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231). Results showed that APW-CP could inhibit the invasion of breast cancer cells and induce apoptosis. Therefore, M1 macrophages polarized by APW-CP showed anti-tumor activity against the breast cancer cells and ß-glucan may be the potential M1-phenotype inducer.

Structural and biochemical analysis of family 92 carbohydrate-binding modules uncovers multivalent binding to ß-glucans.

Carbohydrate-binding modules (CBMs) are non-catalytic proteins found appended to carbohydrate-active enzymes. Soil and marine bacteria secrete such enzymes to scavenge nutrition, and they often use CBMs to improve reaction rates and retention of released sugars. Here we present a structural and functional analysis of the recently established CBM family 92. All proteins analysed bind preferentially to ß-1,6-glucans. This contrasts with the diversity of predicted substrates among the enzymes attached to CBM92 domains. We present crystal structures for two proteins, and confirm by mutagenesis that tryptophan residues permit ligand binding at three distinct functional binding sites on each protein. Multivalent CBM families are uncommon, so the establishment and structural characterisation of CBM92 enriches the classification database and will facilitate functional prediction in future projects. We propose that CBM92 proteins may cross-link polysaccharides in nature, and might have use in novel strategies for enzyme immobilisation.

ß-Glucan ameliorates cisplatin-induced oxidative and histological damage in kidney and liver of rats.

We investigated the effects of ß-glucan (ßg) on kidney and liver damage caused by cisplatin (CP), an antineoplastic agent widely used to treat many types of cancer, in a rat model. The side effects of CP in many tissues and organs limit its usage. ßg is a natural polysaccharide that is an effective free radical scavenger. A total of 28 rats were randomly divided into four groups. Group 1 was a non-intervention control, only feed and water were given. Group 2 was administered 7 mg/kg CP in a single dose. Group 3 was administered 50 mg/kg ßg orally for 14 days. Group 4 was administered ßg for 14 days, following a single dose of CP. At the end of the experiment, kidney and liver tissues were evaluated biochemically and histopathologically. Increased thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) levels, as well as decreased catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities, and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels, as well as histological damage, were noted in both the kidney and liver tissues of the CP group. However, ßg treatment prevented the oxidative and histopathological effects of CP. The study demonstrates the protective efficacy of ßg against CP-induced kidney and liver damage through the effect of its antioxidant properties.

Rheology and gelation of aqueous carboxymethylated curdlan solution: Impact of the degree of substitution.

Curdlan is a unique (1,3)-ß-D-glucan with bioactivity and exceptional gelling properties. By chemical functionalization such as carboxymethylation, the physicochemical properties of curdlan can be significantly tailored. However, how the carboxymethylation extent of curdlan affects its rheology and gelation characteristics has yet to be fully understood. Herein, we investigated the impact of the degree of substitution (DS, ranging from 0.04 to 0.97) on the rheological and gelation behavior of carboxymethylated curdlan (CMCD). It was found that CMCD with DS below 0.20, resembling native curdlan, still retained its gelling capability. As the DS increased beyond 0.36, there was a significant increase in its water solubility instead of gelation, resulting in transparent solutions with steady/complex viscosities adhering to the Cox-Merz rule. Moreover, CMCD with high DS demonstrated the ability to undergo in-situ gelation in the presence of metal ions, attributed to the nonspecific electrostatic binding. Additionally, in vitro cytocompatibility testing showed positive compatibility across varying DS in CMCD. This research offers a holistic understanding of the viscosifying and gelling behaviors of CMCD with varying DS, thereby fostering their practical application as thickeners and gelling agents in fields ranging from food and biomedicine to cosmetics and beyond.

Glucans and applications in drug delivery.

Glucan is a natural polysaccharide widely distributed in cereals and microorganisms that has various biological activities, including immunomodulatory, anti-infective, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor activities. In addition to wide applications in the broad fields of food, healthcare, and biomedicines, glucans hold promising potential as drug delivery carrier materials or ligands. Specifically, glucan microparticles or yeast cell wall particles are naturally enclosed vehicles with an interior cavity that can be exploited to carry and deliver drug payloads. The biological activities and targeting capacities of glucans depend largely on the recognition of glucan moieties by receptors such as dectin-1 and complement receptor 3, which are widely expressed on the cell membranes of mononuclear phagocytes, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and some lymphocytes. This review summarizes the chemical structures, sources, fundamental properties, extraction methods, and applications of these materials, with an emphasis on drug delivery. Glucans are utilized mainly as vaccine adjuvants, targeting ligands and as carrier materials for various drug entities. It is believed that glucans and glucan microparticles may be useful for the delivery of both small-molecule and macromolecular drugs, especially for potential treatment of immune-related diseases.

Colonic in vitro fermentation of mycoprotein promotes shifts in gut microbiota, with enrichment of Bacteroides species.

Mycoprotein is a fungal-derived ingredient used for meat alternative products whose fungal cell walls are rich in dietary fibre (ß-glucans and chitin) and defines its structure. Several health benefits have been reported after mycoprotein consumption, however, little is known about the impact of mycoprotein fermentation on the gut microbiota. This study aims to identify changes in microbiome composition and microbial metabolites during colonic fermentation of mycoprotein following simulated upper gastrointestinal digestion. Changes in microbial populations and metabolites produced by the fermentation of mycoprotein fibre were investigated and compared to a plant (oat bran) and an animal (chicken) comparator. In this model fermentation system, mycoprotein and oat showed different but marked changes in the microbial population compared to chicken, which showed minimal differentiation. In particular, Bacteroides species known for degrading ß-glucans were found in abundance following fermentation of mycoprotein fibre. Mycoprotein fermentation resulted in short-chain fatty acid production comparable with oat and chicken at 72 h. Significantly higher branched-chain amino acids were observed following chicken fermentation. This study suggests that the colonic fermentation of mycoprotein can promote changes in the colonic microbial profile. These results highlight the impact that the unique structure of mycoprotein can have on digestive processes and the gut microbiota.

Evaluating the effect of thermo-reversible and thermo-irreversible curdlan gels on the gelling properties and in vitro digestibility of myofibrillar protein gels under low-salt condition.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the gelling properties and in vitro digestibility of myofibrillar protein (MP) gels under low-salt condition as mediated by different concentrations of thermo-reversible curdlan gels (TRC) or thermo-irreversible curdlan gels (TIRC). The results showed that the incorporation of TRC or TIRC obviously improved the gel strength and water holding capacity of MP gels (P < 0.05). Those properties were most improved by adding 0.3 % TRC or TIRC with gel strength of 0.18 N or 0.17 N and WHC of 54.85 % or 49.05 %. Meanwhile, both TRC and TIRC promoted the transformation of α-helix into ß-sheet, as well as hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bonds, which are the main forces for the maintenance of the MP gels. The microstructure revealed that the formation of dense and uniform protein network structures can be promoted by the addition of TRC or TIRC. The different modes of interaction between TRC or TIRC and MP resulted in different microstructures of the MP gels. Furthermore, incorporation of TRC or TIRC significantly reduced in vitro protein digestibility, especially for the 0.3 % (w/w) form (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, MP gels had the lowest in vitro protein digestibility after the addition of TRC (66.67 %) compared to the form of TIRC (70.93 %). Therefore, our present study indicated that incorporation form of TRC or TIRC have distinct implications on regulating the gelling properties and in vitro digestibility of MP gels under low-salt condition.

Effects of dietary ß-glucans on the productive performance, blood parameters, and intestinal microbiota of angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) juveniles.

Among the potential feed additives, ß-glucans are known to positively affect the growth performance, blood parameters, and intestinal microbiota of fish, even the ornamental species. Therefore, the present study evaluated the effects of the dietary supplementation of different Saccharomyces cerevisiae ß-glucans concentrations (0, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2%) in juvenile angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) over a 42-day period. Regarding growth performance, no effects were observed on most parameters. However, 0.2% ß-glucans supplementation produced higher condition factor values, indicating a better nutritional status. Furthermore, ß-glucans supplementation did not affect blood parameters. Regarding intestinal microbiota, ß-glucans supplementation increased the abundance of the potentially beneficial bacterial genus Phascolarctobacterium. The high abundance of bacteria from the phylum Bacteroidetes, which can degrade ß-glucans, may be attributed to the increased abundance of Phascolarctobacterium spp. In addition, 0.2% ß-glucans supplementation produced more operational taxonomic units and higher Sobs (observed species richness), indicating effects on the overall bacterial community structure. These results demonstrate the potential application of ß-glucans as a dietary supplement to improve the performance and modulate the intestinal microbiota of angelfish.

Enhanced medullary and extramedullary granulopoiesis sustain the inflammatory response in lupus nephritis.

OBJECTIVES: In SLE, deregulation of haematopoiesis is characterised by inflammatory priming and myeloid skewing of haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). We sought to investigate the role of extramedullary haematopoiesis (EMH) as a key player for tissue injury in systemic autoimmune disorders. METHODS: Transcriptomic analysis of bone marrow (BM)-derived HSPCs from patients with SLE and NZBW/F1 lupus-prone mice was performed in combination with DNA methylation profile. Trained immunity (TI) was induced through ß-glucan administration to the NZBW/F1 lupus-prone model. Disease activity was assessed through lupus nephritis (LN) histological grading. Colony-forming unit assay and adoptive cell transfer were used to assess HSPCs functionalities. RESULTS: Transcriptomic analysis shows that splenic HSPCs carry a higher inflammatory potential compared with their BM counterparts. Further induction of TI, through ß-glucan administration, exacerbates splenic EMH, accentuates myeloid skewing and worsens LN. Methylomic analysis of BM-derived HSPCs demonstrates myeloid skewing which is in part driven by epigenetic tinkering. Importantly, transcriptomic analysis of human SLE BM-derived HSPCs demonstrates similar findings to those observed in diseased mice. CONCLUSIONS: These data support a key role of granulocytes derived from primed HSPCs both at medullary and extramedullary sites in the pathogenesis of LN. EMH and TI contribute to SLE by sustaining the systemic inflammatory response and increasing the risk for flare.

Heat-Killed Saccharomyces boulardii Alleviates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Ulcerative Colitis by Restoring the Intestinal Barrier, Reducing Inflammation, and Modulating the Gut Microbiota.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a global intestinal disease, and conventional therapeutic drugs often fail to meet the needs of patients. There is an urgent need to find efficient and affordable novel biological therapies. Saccharomyces boulardii has been widely used in food and pharmaceutical research due to its anti-inflammatory properties and gut health benefits. However, there is still a relatively limited comparison and evaluation of different forms of S. boulardii treatment for UC. This study aimed to compare the therapeutic effects of S. boulardii, heat-killed S. boulardii, and S. boulardii ß-glucan on UC, to explore the potential of heat-killed S. boulardii as a new biological therapy. The results demonstrate that all three treatments were able to restore body weight, reduce the disease activity index (DAI), inhibit splenomegaly, shorten colon length, and alleviate histopathological damage to colonic epithelial tissues in DSS-induced colitis mice. The oral administration of S. boulardii, heat-killed S. boulardii, and S. boulardii ß-glucan also increased the levels of tight junction proteins (Occludin and ZO-1), decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6) in the serum, and suppressed the expressions of TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IL-6 mRNA in the colon. In particular, in terms of gut microbiota, S. boulardii, heat-killed S. boulardii, and S. boulardii ß-glucan exhibited varying degrees of modulation on DSS-induced dysbiosis. Among them, heat-killed S. boulardii maximally restored the composition, structure, and functionality of the intestinal microbiota to normal levels. In conclusion, heat-killed S. boulardii showed greater advantages over S. boulardii and S. boulardii ß-glucan in the treatment of intestinal diseases, and it holds promise as an effective novel biological therapy for UC. This study is of great importance in improving the quality of life for UC patients and reducing the burden of the disease.

Conversion of ß-1,6-Glucans to Gentiobiose using an endo-ß-1,6-Glucanase PsGly30A from Paenibacillus sp. GKG.

A plethora of di- and oligosaccharides isolated from the natural sources are used in food and pharmaceutical industry. An enzymatic hydrolysis of fungal cell wall ß-glucans is a good alternative to produce the desired oligosaccharides with different functionalities, such as the flavour enhancer gentiobiose. We have previously identified PsGly30A as a potential yeast cell wall degrading ß-1,6-glycosidase. The aim of this study is to characterise the PsGly30A enzyme, a member of the GH30 family, and to evaluate its suitability for the production of gentiobiose from ß-1,6-glucans. An endo-ß-1,6-glucanase PsGly30A encoding gene from Paenibacillus sp. GKG has been cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant enzyme has been active towards pustulan and yeast ß-glucan, but not on laminarin from the Laminaria digitata, confirming the endo-ß-1,6-glucanase mode of action. The PsGly30A shows the highest activity at pH 5.5 and 50 °C. The specific activity of PsGly30A on pustulan (1262±82 U/mg) is among the highest reported for GH30 ß-1,6-glycosidases. Moreover, gentiobiose is the major reaction product when pustulan, yeast ß-glucan or yeast cell walls have been used as a substrate. Therefore, PsGly30A is a promising catalyst for valorisation of the yeast-related by-products.

Exploring the immunomodulatory properties of glucan particles in human primary cells.

The immunomodulatory properties of ß-glucans have sparked interest among various medical fields. As vaccine adjuvants, glucan particles offer additional advantages as antigen delivery systems. This study reported the immunomodulatory properties of glucan particles with different size and chemical composition. The effect of glucan microparticles (GPs) and glucan nanoparticles (Glu 130 and 355 NPs) was evaluated on human immune cells. While GPs and Glu 355 NPs demonstrated substantial interaction with Dectin-1 receptor on monocytes, Glu 130 NPs exhibited reduced activation of this receptor. This observation was substantiated by blocking Dectin-1, resulting in inhibition of reactive oxygen species production induced by GPs and Glu 355 NPs. Notably, monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs) stimulated by Glu 355 NPs exhibited phenotypic and functional maturation, essential for antigen cross-presentation. The immunomodulatory efficacy was investigated using an autologous mixed lymphocyte reaction (AMLR), resulting in considerable rates of lymphocyte proliferation and an intriguing profile of cytokine and chemokine release. Our findings highlight the importance of meticulously characterizing the size and chemical composition of ß-glucan particles to draw accurate conclusions regarding their immunomodulatory activity. This in vitro model mimics the human cellular immune response, and the results obtained endorse the use of ß-glucan-based delivery systems as future vaccine adjuvants.

The effect of Bletilla striata polysaccharide on the physical and healing properties of curdlan-based hydrogel for wound healing.

Bletilla striata polysaccharide (BSP) was added to curdlan to form a blend hydrogel through a simple heating-cooling procedure to improve the hydrophilicity and healing efficacy of curdlan-based hydrogel used in wound healing. We explored the interplay between BSP and curdlan, studied how BSP concentration affects the physical properties and microstructures of hydrogels, and examined the biocompatibility and healing properties of the blend hydrogel. It was proved that the hydrogel framework was primarily formed by ordered arranged curdlan molecules, with BSP uniformly dispersed and intertwined with curdlan through hydrogen bonding. This effectively improved its hydrophilicity and strengthened the microstructure. Curdlan was found to be compatible with BSP. The blend hydrogel B3Cd3 (containing 1.5% BSP and 1.5% curdlan, w/v) was identified as the optimal formulation based on its higher water adsorption, water retention, thermal stability and interconnected microstructure, and was thus selected for further research. In vitro experiments revealed the highest cell viability of L929 in B3Cd3 extracts compared to those extracts of single-component curdlan hydrogel (Cd). In vivo, animal studies indicated that the B3Cd3 accelerated wound healing compared to the control group by improving re-epithelialization and blood vessel regeneration. On Days 3 and 11, the therapeutic benefits of B3Cd3 exceeded those of the Cd group, and no significant differences were observed in wound healing rates between the B and B3Cd3 groups from Day 7. The study proves that BSP enhances the physical and healing properties, as well as cell proliferation, of the curdlan-based hydrogel. The blend hydrogel B3Cd3, with its exceptional properties, holds potential for future application as a material for non-infected wound healing.

Facile fabrication of a novel, photodetachable salecan-based hydrogel dressing with self-healing, injectable, and antibacterial properties based on metal coordination.

Achieving the controllable detachment of polysaccharide-based wound dressings is challenging. In this study, a novel, photodetachable salecan-based hydrogel dressing with injectable, self-healing, antibacterial, and wound healing properties was developed using a green and facile approach. A salecan hydrogel with a uniform porous structure and water content of 90.4 % was prepared by simply mixing salecan and an Fe3+-citric acid complexing solution in an acidic D-(+)-glucono-1,5-lactone environment. Metal coordinate interactions were formed between the released Fe3+ ions and carboxyl groups on the salecan polysaccharide, inducing homogeneous gelation. Benefiting from this dynamic and reversible crosslinking, the salecan hydrogel exhibited self-healing and injectable behavior, facilitating the formation of the desired shapes in situ. The exposure of Fe3+-citric acid to UV light (365 nm) resulted in the reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ through photochemical reactions, enabling phototriggered detachment. Moreover, the hydrogel exhibited excellent biocompatibility and satisfactory antibacterial efficacy against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus of 72.5 % and 85.3 %, respectively. The adhesive strength of the salecan hydrogel to porcine skin was 1.06 ± 0.12 kPa. In vivo wound healing experiments further highlighted the advantages of the prepared hydrogel in alleviating the degree of wound inflammation and promoting tissue regeneration within 12 days.

Structural characteristics of ß-glucans from various sources and their influences on the short- and long-term starch retrogradation in wheat flour.

Beta-glucans possess the ability of retarding starch retrogradation. However, ß-glucans from different sources might show various influences on retrogradation process and the structure-function relationships of ß-glucans related to the feature still remains unclear. In the study, the ß-glucans from oat (OG), highland barley (HBG), and yeast (YG) were selected. Each ß-glucans formed aggregate as observed by atomic force microscopy. OG and HBG with a lower Mw aggregated more obviously and exhibited higher intrinsic and apparent viscosity. The two ß-glucans showed more restraining effect on the short-term starch retrogradation in the sol-like test system (RVA) and the long-term starch retrogradation in the gel-like test system (DSC). However, YG with a higher Mw exerted a greater retarding effect on the short-term starch retrogradation in gel-like test systems (Mixolab and rheology). LF-NMR indicated that OG and HBG increased the population of less-bound water by wrapping around the starch. In summary, the structural characteristics of ß-glucan (Mw and aggregation state) and experiment condition (solid content) jointly influenced starch retrogradation, because a lower Mw and higher aggregation capacity ß-glucan interacted more readily with starch and inhibited more starch re-association due to the higher diffusion rate in the sol-like system.

Preparation of ß-1,3-glucan mimics via modification of polymer backbone, and evaluation of cytokine production using the polymer library in immune activation.

ß-1,3-Glucans possess therapeutic potential owing to their ability to exhibit immunostimulating activity. ß-1,3-Glucans, isolated from various organisms, differ in their chemical structures, molecular weight, and branching degree, potentially forming particulate, helix, or random coil conformations in water. Therefore, this study used synthesized ß-1,3-glucan mimic polymers to investigate the difference in binding affinity for dectin-1 and induced cytokine productions based on polymer structures. The ß-1,3-glucan mimic polymers were synthesized using ß-1,3-glucan tetrasaccharyl monomer, with subsequent modifications to the polymer backbones through the introduction of hydrogen or a hydroxy group. Polymers with different structures in both ligands and polymer backbones were utilized to comprehensively investigate their binding affinity to dectin-1 and cytokine-inducing in macrophages. Hydroxylated polymers exhibited a high binding affinity for dectin-1, similar to that of schizophyllan, whereas the polymer composed of only saccharyl monomers did not bind to dectin-1. Further, when administered to macrophage RAW264 cells, polymers with branched and hydrophobic polymer backbones exhibited strong cytokine-inducing activities. Moreover, the results revealed that the essential factors for cytokine induction include the branches of ß-1,3-glucans, high (tens of thousands) molecular weights, and hydrophobicity. The results suggests that artificial polymers comprising these factors exhibit immunostimulating activity and could be developed as therapeutic agents.

Beta-Glucan as a Soluble Dietary Fiber Source: Origins, Biosynthesis, Extraction, Purification, Structural Characteristics, Bioavailability, Biofunctional Attributes, Industrial Utilization, and Global Trade.

This paper explores the multifaceted nature of ß-glucan, a notable dietary fiber (DF) with extensive applications. Beginning with an in-depth examination of its intricate polysaccharide structure, the discussion extends to diverse sources like oats, barley, mushrooms, and yeast, emphasizing their unique compositions. The absorption and metabolism of ß-glucan in the human body are scrutinized, emphasizing its potential health benefits. Extraction and purification processes for high-quality ß-glucan in food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics are outlined. The paper underscores ß-glucan's biofunctional roles in immune modulation, cholesterol regulation, and gastrointestinal health, supported by clinical studies. The review discusses global trade dynamics by tracing its evolution from a niche ingredient to a global commodity. In summary, it offers a comprehensive scientific perspective on ß-glucan, serving as a valuable resource for researchers, professionals, and industries exploring its potential in the dietary fiber landscape.